Archaeology
Evidence of steel tools being used in Europe during Late Bronze Age
Researchers have discovered that steel tools were being used on the Iberian Peninsula during the Late Bronze Age 2,900 years ago.
An international study has conducted a geochemical analysis on stone pillar stelae found in the Iberian Peninsula, revealing that engravings on the rock face were created using tempered steel.
This is supported by a metallographic analysis of an iron chisel from the same period found at Rocha do Vigio, which has the necessary carbon content to be classified as steel.
Until recently, it was assumed that the inhabitants of the region lacked the skill and understanding to produce steel in the Early Iron Age, and certainly not in the Late Bronze Age, which only became widespread through contact and conquest by the Romans. The Iberian Bronze Age started around 1800 BC, concluding with the Iberian Iron Age sometime during the 9th century BC.
Dr. Ralph Araque Gonzalez, an archaeologist from the University of Freiburg, said: “The chisel from Rocha do Vigio and the context where it was found, shows that iron metallurgy, which includes the production and tempering of steel, were probably indigenous developments of decentralised small communities in Iberia, and not due to the influence of later colonisation processes.”
The results of the study, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, conducted an analysis of stelae pillars made from silicate quartz sandstone. “Just like quartzite, this is an extremely hard rock that cannot be worked with bronze or stone tools, but only with tempered steel,” says Gonzalez.
A closer inspection of the chisel from Rocha do Vigio, reveals that it consists of heterogeneous yet astonishingly carbon-rich steel. To confirm their findings, the researchers carried out an experiment involving a professional stonemason, a blacksmith and a bronze caster, and attempted to work examples of silicate quartz sandstone using chisels of different materials.
The stonemason was unable to work the stone with either the stone or the bronze chisels, or even using an iron chisel with an untempered point. “The people of the Late Bronze Age in Iberia were capable of tempering steel. Otherwise, they would not have been able to work the pillars,” concludes Araque Gonzalez as a result of the experiment.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2023.105742
Header Image Credit : University of Freiburg
This content was originally published on www.heritagedaily.com – © 2023 – HeritageDaily
A recent study, published in the journal ResearchGate, proposes that the Pyramid of Djoser could have been constructed using hydraulic lift.
The Pyramid of Djoser, also known as the Step Pyramid, is a proto-pyramid built as the final resting place of Djoser, the first or second pharaoh of Egypt’s 3rd Dynasty (2670–2650 BC) during the Old Kingdom period.
The pyramid rises from the Saqqara plateau in six steps to a height of around 60 to 62 metres, serving as the centre of a vast mortuary complex.
Due to the absence of authentic sources from the pyramid architects’ working sphere, there is currently no confirmed comprehensive model for the method used in the pyramid construction.
The prevailing theory suggests that the heavy stone blocks were transported on apparatuses such as rollers, and raised to height using a series of ramps.
In the study, a survey of watersheds near to the pyramid indicate that the Gisr el-Mudir (enclosure) has features of a check dam for trapping sediment and water. Furthermore, the topography beyond the “dam” shows a possible ephemeral lake west of the Djoser complex, and water flow inside the moat surrounding it.
The study authors explain: “In the southern section of the moat, we show that the monumental linear rock-cut structure consisting of successive, deep compartments, combines the technical requirements of a water treatment facility: a settling basin, a retention basin, and a purification system.”
Based on this finding, the study proposes that the Gisr el-Mudir and moat’s inner south section worked as a unified hydraulic system for regulating flow and improving water quality. In addition, the pyramid’s internal architecture is consistent with a hydraulic elevation mechanism never reported before.
“The ancient architects likely raised the stones from the pyramid centre in a volcano fashion using the sediment-free water from the Dry Moat’s south section. Ancient Egyptians are famous for their pioneering and mastery of hydraulics through canals for irrigation purposes and barges to transport huge stones. This work opens a new line of research: the use of hydraulic force to erect the massive structures built by Pharaohs,” said the study authors.
Please note: This study was submitted to PLOS ONE on December 7, 2023. After two rounds of review by peers, the paper was formally accepted by PLOS ONE on June 27, 2024. Since July 23, 2024, it has been the subject of new consultations and review by the PLOS ONE Editorial Board.
Header Image Credit : Shutterstock
Sources : ResearchGate | Piton, Guillaume. (2024). On the possible use of hydraulic force to assist with building the Step Pyramid of Saqqara. PLOS ONE.
This content was originally published on www.heritagedaily.com – © 2023 – HeritageDaily
Constructed between 1630 and 1633 in a Renaissance-Baroque style, the Great Synagogue of Vilnius served as the religious centre of a complex of synagogues, mikvahs, and community institutions devoted to Torah study in Vilnius, Lithuania.
According to a press statement by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA): “The Great Synagogue of Vilna was the beating heart of the Lithuanian Jewry, which included 12 synagogues and study houses, the community council building, the home of Rabbi Eliyahu – the Vilna Gaon, Kosher meat stalls, the famous ‘Strashun’ library, a bathhouse and more.”
During World War II, the synagogue was looted, burned, and partially destroyed by the Nazis in the holocaust. Soviet authorities completely demolished the remaining structure to build a school, intending to prevent any future restoration of Jewish worship.
Only three original pieces of the synagogue survived the destruction: a door of the Holy Ark, a reader’s desk, and a bas-relief with the Ten Commandments, which are now on display at the Vilna Gaon Jewish Museum.
Image Credit : Israel Antiquities Authority
In a recent study conducted by the IAA, the Association of Lithuanian Archaeology, the Good Will Foundation, and the Jewish Community of Lithuania, archaeologists have rediscovered traces of the synagogue’s decorated walls and remnants of flooring with red, black, and white floral patterns that paved the main hall.
Excavations also uncovered huge water reservoirs to feed halachically pure water to the mikva’ot, and one of the giant pillars that surrounded the Bimah (prayer platform).
Dr. Jon Seligman from the IAA and Justinas Rakas from the Lithuanian Archaeological Society, said: “The magnificent remains we are rediscovering bring back moments in the life of a lost vibrant community.”
Header Image Credit : Israel Antiquities Authority
Sources : IAA
This content was originally published on www.heritagedaily.com – © 2023 – HeritageDaily
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