Archaeology
Evidence of steel tools being used in Europe during Late Bronze Age
Researchers have discovered that steel tools were being used on the Iberian Peninsula during the Late Bronze Age 2,900 years ago.
An international study has conducted a geochemical analysis on stone pillar stelae found in the Iberian Peninsula, revealing that engravings on the rock face were created using tempered steel.
This is supported by a metallographic analysis of an iron chisel from the same period found at Rocha do Vigio, which has the necessary carbon content to be classified as steel.
Until recently, it was assumed that the inhabitants of the region lacked the skill and understanding to produce steel in the Early Iron Age, and certainly not in the Late Bronze Age, which only became widespread through contact and conquest by the Romans. The Iberian Bronze Age started around 1800 BC, concluding with the Iberian Iron Age sometime during the 9th century BC.
Dr. Ralph Araque Gonzalez, an archaeologist from the University of Freiburg, said: “The chisel from Rocha do Vigio and the context where it was found, shows that iron metallurgy, which includes the production and tempering of steel, were probably indigenous developments of decentralised small communities in Iberia, and not due to the influence of later colonisation processes.”
The results of the study, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, conducted an analysis of stelae pillars made from silicate quartz sandstone. “Just like quartzite, this is an extremely hard rock that cannot be worked with bronze or stone tools, but only with tempered steel,” says Gonzalez.
A closer inspection of the chisel from Rocha do Vigio, reveals that it consists of heterogeneous yet astonishingly carbon-rich steel. To confirm their findings, the researchers carried out an experiment involving a professional stonemason, a blacksmith and a bronze caster, and attempted to work examples of silicate quartz sandstone using chisels of different materials.
The stonemason was unable to work the stone with either the stone or the bronze chisels, or even using an iron chisel with an untempered point. “The people of the Late Bronze Age in Iberia were capable of tempering steel. Otherwise, they would not have been able to work the pillars,” concludes Araque Gonzalez as a result of the experiment.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2023.105742
Header Image Credit : University of Freiburg
This content was originally published on www.heritagedaily.com – © 2023 – HeritageDaily
A team of researchers from the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, and the Universitaet Tübingen, have uncovered a collection of ceiling reliefs during restoration works in the Temple of Esna.
The Temple of Esna, also known as the Temple of Khnum, is a temple complex dedicated to the Ancient Egyptian god, Khnum, and his consorts Menhit and Nebtu, their son, Heka, and the goddess Neith.
The temple was constructed during Ptolemaic times in the Egyptian city of Esna, which during antiquity was known as Latopolis.
During restoration and re-colouring works, the team found a representation of the heavens that depicts the signs of the zodiac, several planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars, in addition to a number of stars and constellations used to measure time.
Image Credit : Ahmed Emam, Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities
Over the centuries, the reliefs and their vibrant colours became covered by a layer of dirt and soot, preserving them for nearly 2,000 years.
Christian Leitz, Director of the Department of Egyptology at the University of Tübingen said: “Representations of the zodiac are very rare in Egyptian temples. The zodiac itself is part of Babylonian astronomy and does not appear in Egypt until Ptolemaic times.”
The archaeologists suggest that the system of zodiac signs and their related constellations didn’t appear in Egypt until they were introduced by the Greeks, which were then used to decorate private tombs and sarcophagi. The zodiac was also of great importance in astrological texts, such as horoscopes found inscribed on pottery sherds.
Image Credit : Ahmed Emam, Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities
“It is rare in temple decoration: Apart from Esna, there are only two completely preserved versions left, both from Dendera,” added Leitz.
The team also found images of various creatures, including a snake with a ram’s head, a bird with a crocodile’s head, the tail of a snake and four wings, and depictions of snakes and crocodiles.
Header Image Credit : Ahmed Emam, Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities
Archaeologists from the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) have discovered a burial chamber at the Maya city of Palenque.
Palenque, also known as Lakamha in the Itza Language (meaning “Flat-Place-River”) was a Maya city state located in the Mexican state of Chiapas.
Much of the history of Palenque has been reconstructed from hieroglyphic inscriptions on the monuments, revealing a sequence of the ruling Palenque Dynasty from the 5th century till the 8th century AD.
Palenque is a medium-sized site, smaller than Tikal, Chichen Itza, or Copán, but it contains some of the finest architecture, sculpture, roof comb and bas-relief carvings that the Mayas produced.
Image Credit : INAH
Archaeologist from INAH have been conducting restoration works as part of the Program for the Improvement of Archaeological Zones, funded as a government led initiative by the Ministry of Culture.
During excavations of a structure designated CP3, the researchers uncovered a burial chamber containing a skeleton placed in a face-up position and orientated to the north, a typical funerary custom of the high-status inhabitants of Palenque.
Several large ceramic bowls were placed in the chamber as offerings, which according to Maya funerary beliefs would nourish the deceased both in life and death.
The remains of a woman and a skull was also found in a secondary burial deposit, in addition to green figurines made from jade that are often related to rulership and authority, wealth, water, maize, and centrality, or may represent a member of the Maya pantheon of gods.
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