Archaeology
Archaeologists uncover Roman soldier’s paycheck at Masada
Archaeologists from the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) have uncovered a papyrus paycheck belonging to Roman soldier during excavations at Masada.
Masada is an ancient fortress and palace, built by King Herod the Great between 37 and 31 BC, situated on a plateau overlooking the dead sea in the Southern District of Israel.
During the First Jewish-Roman War, also called the Great Revolt, Masada was taken by the Sicarii (meaning “dagger-man”), a splinter group of the Jewish Zealots, and one of the earliest organised groups that specialised in the act of assassination.
In AD 72, the legion X Fretensis, commanded by Lucius Flavius Silva, marched on Masada to break the Sicarii resistance. The legion was supported by several auxiliary units and Jewish prisoners of war (totalling some 15,000 men and women according to accounts by the Romano-Jewish historian, Flavius Josephus).
Masada – Image Credit : Shutterstock
The Romans encircled Masada with a circumvallation siege wall, running for 6.8 miles around the mountain plateau, supported by a series of fortified encampments or temporary forts.
After several attempts to breach Masada’s defences, the Romans constructed a giant siege ramp scaling the western side of the fortress to a height of 61 metres. A siege tower and battering ram was slowly moved up the ramp, where on April 16th, AD 73, the walls of Masada were breached.
The events that followed has divided historians and archaeologists. According to Josephus: “it [was] by the will of God, and by necessity, that [they, the Sicarrii] are to die” and that the defenders drew lots and killed each other in turn, down to the last man (as Judaism prohibits suicide). Josephus further stated that their leader, Eleazar ben Ya’ir’s, ordered all provisions to be destroyed, to demonstrate to the Romans that they defiantly chose death over slavery.
Excavations by the IAA have found a detailed military paycheck (one of only three legionary paychecks discovered in the entire Roman Empire), issued to a Roman legionary soldier from the period of the First Jewish-Roman War in AD 72. The paycheck is one of 14 Latin scrolls found at Masada by archaeologists – 13 of which was written on papyrus, and one on parchment paper.
The paycheck provides a detailed summary of a Roman soldier’s salary over two pay periods (out of three he would receive annually), including the various deductions that he was charged.
Dr. Oren Ableman, senior curator-researcher at the Israel Antiquities Authority Dead Sea Scrolls Unit, said: “The soldier’s paycheck included deductions for boots and a linen tunic, and barley fodder for his horse.”
“Surprisingly, the details indicate that the deductions almost exceeded the soldier’s salary. Whilst this document provides only a glimpse into a single soldier’s expenses in a specific year, it is clear that in light of the nature and risks of the job, the soldiers did not stay in the army only for the salary,” added Dr Ableman.
According to Dr. Ableman, “The soldiers may have been allowed to loot on military campaigns. Other possible suggestions arise from reviewing the different historical texts preserved in the Israel Antiquities Authority Dead Sea Scrolls Laboratory.
For example, a document discovered in the Cave of Letters in Nahal Hever from the time of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (AD 132–135), sheds light on some side hustles Roman soldiers used to earn extra cash. This document is a loan deed signed between a Roman soldier and a Jewish resident, the soldier charging the resident with interest higher than what was legal. This document reinforces the understanding that the Roman soldiers’ salaries may have been augmented by additional sources of income, making service in the Roman army far more lucrative.”
Header Image Credit : Shai Halevi, Israel Antiquities Authority
This content was originally published on www.heritagedaily.com – © 2023 – HeritageDaily
A recent study, published in the journal ResearchGate, proposes that the Pyramid of Djoser could have been constructed using hydraulic lift.
The Pyramid of Djoser, also known as the Step Pyramid, is a proto-pyramid built as the final resting place of Djoser, the first or second pharaoh of Egypt’s 3rd Dynasty (2670–2650 BC) during the Old Kingdom period.
The pyramid rises from the Saqqara plateau in six steps to a height of around 60 to 62 metres, serving as the centre of a vast mortuary complex.
Due to the absence of authentic sources from the pyramid architects’ working sphere, there is currently no confirmed comprehensive model for the method used in the pyramid construction.
The prevailing theory suggests that the heavy stone blocks were transported on apparatuses such as rollers, and raised to height using a series of ramps.
In the study, a survey of watersheds near to the pyramid indicate that the Gisr el-Mudir (enclosure) has features of a check dam for trapping sediment and water. Furthermore, the topography beyond the “dam” shows a possible ephemeral lake west of the Djoser complex, and water flow inside the moat surrounding it.
The study authors explain: “In the southern section of the moat, we show that the monumental linear rock-cut structure consisting of successive, deep compartments, combines the technical requirements of a water treatment facility: a settling basin, a retention basin, and a purification system.”
Based on this finding, the study proposes that the Gisr el-Mudir and moat’s inner south section worked as a unified hydraulic system for regulating flow and improving water quality. In addition, the pyramid’s internal architecture is consistent with a hydraulic elevation mechanism never reported before.
“The ancient architects likely raised the stones from the pyramid centre in a volcano fashion using the sediment-free water from the Dry Moat’s south section. Ancient Egyptians are famous for their pioneering and mastery of hydraulics through canals for irrigation purposes and barges to transport huge stones. This work opens a new line of research: the use of hydraulic force to erect the massive structures built by Pharaohs,” said the study authors.
Please note: This study was submitted to PLOS ONE on December 7, 2023. After two rounds of review by peers, the paper was formally accepted by PLOS ONE on June 27, 2024. Since July 23, 2024, it has been the subject of new consultations and review by the PLOS ONE Editorial Board.
Header Image Credit : Shutterstock
Sources : ResearchGate | Piton, Guillaume. (2024). On the possible use of hydraulic force to assist with building the Step Pyramid of Saqqara. PLOS ONE.
This content was originally published on www.heritagedaily.com – © 2023 – HeritageDaily
Constructed between 1630 and 1633 in a Renaissance-Baroque style, the Great Synagogue of Vilnius served as the religious centre of a complex of synagogues, mikvahs, and community institutions devoted to Torah study in Vilnius, Lithuania.
According to a press statement by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA): “The Great Synagogue of Vilna was the beating heart of the Lithuanian Jewry, which included 12 synagogues and study houses, the community council building, the home of Rabbi Eliyahu – the Vilna Gaon, Kosher meat stalls, the famous ‘Strashun’ library, a bathhouse and more.”
During World War II, the synagogue was looted, burned, and partially destroyed by the Nazis in the holocaust. Soviet authorities completely demolished the remaining structure to build a school, intending to prevent any future restoration of Jewish worship.
Only three original pieces of the synagogue survived the destruction: a door of the Holy Ark, a reader’s desk, and a bas-relief with the Ten Commandments, which are now on display at the Vilna Gaon Jewish Museum.
Image Credit : Israel Antiquities Authority
In a recent study conducted by the IAA, the Association of Lithuanian Archaeology, the Good Will Foundation, and the Jewish Community of Lithuania, archaeologists have rediscovered traces of the synagogue’s decorated walls and remnants of flooring with red, black, and white floral patterns that paved the main hall.
Excavations also uncovered huge water reservoirs to feed halachically pure water to the mikva’ot, and one of the giant pillars that surrounded the Bimah (prayer platform).
Dr. Jon Seligman from the IAA and Justinas Rakas from the Lithuanian Archaeological Society, said: “The magnificent remains we are rediscovering bring back moments in the life of a lost vibrant community.”
Header Image Credit : Israel Antiquities Authority
Sources : IAA
This content was originally published on www.heritagedaily.com – © 2023 – HeritageDaily
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